Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying

by: Radhanath Thialan

            In the digital age, everything has advanced exponentially in the last few decades, so has bullying.  Ever since the Internet enhances, the world around us has changed to make living so much easier and convenient.  Everything is mostly done with a single click, from enrolling in your classes at universities, shopping, paying bills, making international calls and even using phones as CCTVs.  Bullying, some how had made its way into the ‘world of one click’ too! It is ridiculous and unbelievable that the Internet can bully an individual.  It has become clear that cyberbullying is a severe problem now.  This battle in cyberspace never ends and is consistently reflected in the headlines of many medias in the past few years.  It is tremendously sad to see young souls taking their own lives as a result of this modern age bullying.  There is much more to look into bullying tactics, such as traditional bullying vs cyberbullying, cyberbullying around the world, and ways we could reduce this crime.  Ironically, these headlines create fear of online technologies, but it is good to be aware of this issue, as it is a serious matter in this modern era.  

Traditional Bullying vs Cyberbullying

What is bullying?

            According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bully was originally known as “sweetheart” in 1530.  The meaning of bully was then known as “lover” by the Dutch and “brother” by the Germans.  In the late 1880s, it was then preserved as a positive expression, which meant “jolly, worthy, admirable” (especially in a 1864, the US slang bully for you!) (Harper).   The definition of bully, as a verb, found in the current Oxford dictionary states that “an individual uses superior strength or influence to intimidate (someone), typically to force him or her to do what one wants.”  During a conference held in the White House, peer victimization (also known as bullying) has been recognized as a serious health issue in the United States (Background on White).

            Bully comes in many forms, such as humiliation, harassment, threatening and other activities which cause discomfort to a person.  Bullies bully is mainly to show “power;” some bully just because they are racists, sexists, or intolerant to a person’s gender.  Language is very important and plays a big role here.  There are two types of teasing, namely physical and verbal teasing.  One may tease jokingly and not offend anyone by his or her appearance.  Most of the time, these words are directed to friends without any harmful intentions, but some people may take it otherwise and feel offended.  Just like the human rights bullying case (Jubran v. School District No. 44 (North Vancouver), 2005 BCCA 201). 

            This case involved a student of Iranian descent, Azmi Jubran, who was suffering from verbal bullying in his four years of high school.  After graduating, he sued the school for not protecting him from bullying.  He was often teased and was called names by his peers and teachers such as “gay,” “faggot” and other words even though he is not homosexual.  He is a homophobic and claimed that he had been discriminated by the school faculties and friends, when he started to be teased online, he found it very disturbing.  This case was actually closed, with the conclusion that teasing is not part of bullying and as Jubran "is not a homosexual and the students who attacked him did not believe he was a homosexual" (School District).  In this statement, teasing is not considered bullying when the person is not what the “joke” claimed them to be. 

            The example given above can also be related to bullying targets.  Female students are more likely to be bullied compared to male students.  Bullies usually target weaker students or an individual who does not fit in the society or certain peer groups.  The most outrageous part is the fact that most bullying happens in school.  Research done by the NSPCC found that 10% of school students between ages 11 to 16 are targeted daily by Internet “trolls” (Townsend).  Based on gender wise, the Megan Meirer foundation had provided this statistic for a better approximation on the percentages of male and female students experienced bullying (Bullying, Cyberbullying).  The data below is taken from the Megan Meirer foundation website. 

·      50% of female students have experienced psychological bullying, compared to 39% of male  students;

·      45% of male students have experienced physical bullying, compared to 37% of female students;

·      23% of females reported cyberbullying victimization, compared to 11% of males.

            Moreover, bullies also target people by judging them by their appearances.  People who are fat, homosexual, disabled, “nerdy-looking,” untastefully dressed, different races are the major bullied or humiliated targets in school.  Almost 93% of people who are obese and homosexual (especially boys) had all experienced bullying in life (Landau), and 7% of these victims had actually committed suicide, as they were always being targeted to be humiliated everyday in school (Bullying, Cyberbullying). 

Types of Bullying

          Bullying can come in many different forms and ways.  The more extreme type of bullying would be known as harassment.  Figure 1 shows some forms of bullying that often happens in schools.  The research was done by Megan Meirer Foundation.  The types of bullying in the pie chart consists of insulting/made-fun of, rumors spreading, threatened with harm, pushed/spit on/shoved, forced to do things, excluded from activities on purpose and had properties destroyed on purpose. 

Figure 1

Source: (Bullying, Cyberbullying)

            

            From the types of bullying listed above, bullying is divided into two categories – physical and psychological.  Psychologists around the world actually claim that physical bullying is not as bad as psychological bullying.  Physical bullying often involves beating up, spiting on or having physical contact with the victim.  This type of bullying normally leads to scars, injuries, and if serious, disability or death.  The victim in physical bullying often has external injuries and the bully is easier to be caught by school faculty or police officers.  One newspaper article stated that physical bullying often involves violence, while psychological bullying is “violence in silence”. 

         Psychological bullying is very hard to cure as the victim normally undergoes depression, low self-esteem and some of them tend to give up their own lives.  It is very hard to investigate upon their deaths because some of them planned or attempted suicide and are ashamed to even tell their parents about it.  Victims often face hatred by their friends and are looked down on society. He or she may feel hopeless, helpless and affected psychologically.  Many victims actually find relief by ending their lives as a result.  According to SAVE: (Suicide Awareness Voices of Education) 1 in 65,000 children, age 10 to 14 commit suicide each year. The World Health Organization made a study and stated that 80% of people who committed suicide had several depressive symptoms as well (Bullying, Cyberbullying).  Figure 2 below shows the percentage of teenagers who were being bullied in relation to suicidal thoughts and attempts. 

  Figure 2: Bullied victims and thoughts of suicidal. 

Source: (Bullying, Cyberbullying)

Bullying today

           Bullying is traditionally found and happened in the physical world.  Since the technology boost subsequently in the twenty-first century, bullying has slowly found its way into cyberspace.  According to formal surveys done by Patchin (a psychologist who studies the phenomenon of bullying at University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire) at some point of their school years, as many as 25% of teenagers have experienced cyberbullying.  In the past 30 days in April 2013, 10% out of 150,000 middle and high school students throughout the United States have been victims of cyberbullying (Landau).  On Twitter, people really do write some awful and negative things about others.  This was a “tweet” that was retweeted:
            “@USERNAME continuation to my last tweet, you are a big nosed big lipped bug eyed nigger.  You’re greedy, you try to hide your ghettones.” (Edited to meet English words)

This awfully rude statement was retweeted several times.  People should be against bullies, but in this case, the bully gained fame instead, with so many people supporting his dreadful statement. 

            The word cyberbullying was formed when society started to bully people online and not physically as in the traditional way.  It affects the victim psychologically and mentally, which causes severe depression.  Cyberbullies usually humiliate by spreading rumors and threatening the victim through social media, which causes the victim to be unaccepted or discriminated by their peers and society.  There are a few unique characteristics that can be found in cyberbullying such as anonymity, accessibility, punitive fears and bystanders (Cyber Bullying). 

            Academically, it is better to know why one did badly on the test, rather than just getting an overall percentage without knowing the mistakes.  This concept applies to cyberbullying.  When a person is bullied through technology, many of the victims do not know what is the cause behind the bullying.  They have no one to blame when being bullied by someone who did not know them well enough.  This can eventually instill significant amount of stress and fear in the victims.  Cyberbullying prevention organization website stated two good points to show why victims are afraid to voice out that they had been bullied: “(1) Fear of retribution from their tormentors; (2) fear that their computer or phone privileges will be taken away” (Cyber Bullying).  This is due to the fact that most parents will actually confiscate the victim’s electronic gadgets and shuts off their social networking profiles, if they know about the bully and the victim often sees it as a punishment. 

            A most common solution of cyberbullying for the victim would be suicide, or attempting suicide.  Most victims are affected psychologically and feel that they could not live with this "torture" any longer. Furthermore, these victims who were cyber-bullied somehow had been through harassment, denigration, cyber stalked and flaming.  Flaming means “online fighting” using vulgar languages in electronic messaging.  Most of the victims are bullied by their peers, but there are also a small percentage of teenagers who are bullied by fake accounts (someone who does not exist in real life).  This caused the victim to be terrified, as someone whom they do not know at all knows everything about them.  Cyberbullying is also very closely related to cyber stalking.  Many users abuse the use of technology to cause harm and fear to others, in which giving technology advancement a distress to the society (Landau). 

Cyberbullying Around the World

Technological Advancement and Cyberbullying

            Many people have smart phones and tablets that are able to send text messages, e-mails, make phone calls, and is an alarm clock, reminder, dictionary, newspaper, television, and many more all coalesced into one device. There is no time to waste and it should not be a surprise to any of us.  As technology grows, people have to stay one step ahead and catch up with technology as it is advancing fast.  But the problem is, as good things blossom, bad influences and unwanted problems tend to penetrate their way, abusing the good use of technology to cause impairment. 

            In today’s world, over 80% of teenagers use a hand phone regularly, making it the most common medium for cyberbullying (Cyber Bullying Statistics).  As technology advances, the Internet takes its place in becoming the “God of Technology.”  Without the presence of the Internet, 90% of any electronic devices will not be able to function to its fullest.  Social media then came wide use when the Internet advanced and in 2004, Facebook was born.  Facebook is currently the most popular social media in the world with millions of users.  Somehow, many bullies tend to manipulate this advancement through the presence of social media. 

            Facebook users should be more cautious while using it to keep them safe.  According to the New York Times, many users do not have self-appreciation and self-love, as they post many pictures that are very exposing online.  Even though there is a privacy setting on Facebook, many people tend to open their profile to the public (Bazelon).  This will cause unnecessary attention to strangers online, which sparks the whole problem of cyberstalking and cyberbullying.  It is never safe to put up phone numbers and home addresses on Facebook, but there are many ignorant people who still do so.  This makes it easier for bullies to create fake accounts with fake names and pretend to be their friends. 
                    The sad story of Amanda Todd in 2012 is a good example of the cause of cyberbullying.  Amanda Todd is a girl from Canada whom actually committed suicide because she could not stand the amount of humiliations faced in her life.  She loved to make friends through social media, where there was a guy who asked her to show her breast.  She actually did it, the guy then blackmailed her and created an account of her with her nude pictures.  She attempted suicide the first time by drinking bleach, but was saved after rushing to the hospital.  But on October 10^th, 2012, Todd took her life in her bedroom months after her first attempt of suicide. After Todd’s death, there are so many teenagers who actually liked a page of her memorial and commented nasty things on Facebook (Grenoble).  Just recently this year, police officers found the man behind the scene of her death was from Netherlands (Charges over).          

            Thanks to technology advancement, anything is possible with just one click.  With such advanced technology presence, users should always be more careful on what they are posting online and make sure that they do not provide too much personal information. Posting too many exposing pictures and too much private information can make a person the next target to be bullied and threatened via the Internet.  People need to stay safe and stay low profile not only in person, but also on Facebook or any other social media (Grenoble).  

Cyberbullying in Different Continents of the World

            As Internet usage grows worldwide, bullies tend to find their way to bully any Internet users around the world.  It is interesting to find out that the growth of cyberbullying grew exponentially in 2006-2012.  According to Sameer, the bullying rate actually maintained since 2013 as the society is more aware of the negative consequences (Hinduja).  There are also more public awareness and campaigns on anti-cyberbullying since 2006.  Many foundations rated that Facebook, Ask.fm and Twitter are the three most common social networking sites used by cyberbullies worldwide (Townsend).  These bullies often trick young teenagers into believing in them and ask the users private questions and then publish their answers to humiliate them. 

            Cyberbullying started to spread in Asia, making China and Singapore the two countries with most cyberbullying cases (Townsend).  Many teenagers and children in Indonesia were also targets in Asia with 53% known by the community but only 14% of them said that they have been cyberbullied (Nakao).  Within a survey done in seven Asia Pacific countries including China, Singapore, Australia, Japan, India, Malaysia and Indonesia; China and Singapore have the highest cyberbullying cases with Japan reported with the lowest percentage with only 17% in the high school population being cyberbullied (Chua).     

            Unfortunately in Europe, cyberbullying often involves pornographic and child pornography (Cyberbullying and).  In a survey of more than 10,000 European teenagers, 37% of them are experiencing cyberbullying on a daily basis and 13% out of the 37% has something to do with porn.  Police officers in Europe are now taking child pornography very seriously to prevent this bullying from spreading around Europe.  Victims were often asked to turn on a webcam and show their body parts while the bully will record them and later post it online.  Teenagers naively comply because most of them were threatened, leaving them in fear and will do anything to save themselves. 

            Canada and America have more or less the same statistics as the other sections in the research paper.  Teenagers are more often teased and made fun of online, but it seldom has any sexual content in cyberbullying (Landau).  No matter where people are from and what time it is, cyberbullies are able to make them victims as long they have connection to the Internet and holds any social networking account.  Teenagers and children worldwide should not trust strangers so easily and get themselves in trouble, humiliated and not accepted by the public. 

Controlling Cyberbullying

What can parents do? 

            The biggest problem rising is that cyberbullied victims are often embarrassed to bring up the fact that they are being bullied online by strangers.  They are afraid that their parents will keep all electronic devices from them to punish them.  As a fact, that is the biggest mistake made.  Parents should be more open with their children and should provide proper knowledge to their children when they reporting any problems in life.  Michael, a psychologist in cyber criminology stated that the more bonded a family is, the more they share among each other.  Families that have constant support of one another with unconditional love are most likely to have no problems sharing any topics about themselves with their family (Pittaro). 

            Ashley Berry, a 13-year-old girl from Colorado had experienced terrifying moments from her friends online.  When she was only 11, one of her classmates saved all her Facebook pictures and recreated another profile of her.  "It had things like where I went to school, and where my family was from and my birthday, and there were no security settings at all, so it was pretty scary," she said (Landau).  Even though that anonymous friend of Ashley’s did not post any mean or harmful subjects, the cyberbully actually used her profile to add many strangers on Facebook and spammed her friends’ profiles.  She was then left alone, annoyed by some of her friends for the spamming of posts and weird comments.  With a loving family at home, Ashley openly told her mom about what happened in school (Landau). 

            "You would see a girl who should be on top of the world coming home and just closing herself into her bedroom," Berry, Ashley’s mother said (Landau).  After launching a police report and had that Facebook account shut down, her mom took full responsibility on controlling Ashley’s social media accounts.  She often checks if her privacy status is open to the public or only her friends.  Berry also knows her password to her accounts just in case someone is trying to bully her again (Landau).  A research done by the Megan Meier foundation states that 1 in 6 parents know their child has been bullied via a social networking site (Bullying, Cyberbullying). 

            The least parents can provide their children is to care for them at all time and spend more time with them.  Moreover, parents should also be balanced between their rulings in strictness.  The children should have certain limitations on their freedom and not going over the borderline.  Parents should supervise computer usage at home and set up parental control on the computers to provide safety while their child is using the computer.  Monitoring their children’s online activities and teaching their children about technology to provide better understanding is able to reduce the risks of being cyberbullied.  Parents do play a big role in their children’s safety and should be responsible for them at all times (Cyber Bullying). 

What should school authorities do?

            Due to the presence of emotion, some children do not feel comfortable informing their parents about their problems.  The bar chart below shows the percentage of high school student in the United States seeking help from when they are bullied via the Internet.  It is really good to see in Figure 3 that most students still seek help from their parents when they are being bullied. 

Figure 3: Percentage of who a high school student will turn to for help when cyberbullied. 

Source: (Bullying, Cyberbullying)

School authorities plays a big role here to help prevent cyberbullying, even though this activity is normally done out of school.  Campaigns could be held in school to provide awareness to school children as 92% of cyberbullying happens in the school ground on children aged between 12 – 18 (Landau).  More foundations like the Megan Meier Foundation should be developed to lower the amount of cyberbullying.  In just one year, this foundation had already lowered 5% of cyberbullying cases among the children they had provided help for (Bullying, Cyberbullying).  All these awareness foundations have to do is to provide knowledge about this crime and educate the younger generations about the harm of this sort of bullying.  Fear normally prevents a child from doing an activity and therefore, adults could give examples to children in order to provide them a little fear to prevent them from being bullied (Xu). 

            Suicide is definitely not a solution towards solving problems.  SAVE: Suicide Awareness Voices of Education holds campaigns and awareness to lower the suicide rate in the United States.  Suicide caused by cyberbullying is by far the hardest to prevent.  While doing investigations, police officers and investigators find it very hard to locate the bully because it is all done behind screens.  They are able to create fake accounts online, which leads no trace and no proofs to accuse anyone for the death plus it is a suicide; the victim took his or her own life.  Since it is commonly happening within teenagers, many strict law enforcements and policy were put into cyberbullying.  Teenagers who found guilty will be put into jail or juveniles to teach them a lesson and to keep the society safe.  Cyberbully is a crime (Landau).  

The Law and legal response

            In the twentieth century when many cyberbullying cases were reported, there are now many strict laws to minimize this anonymous crime.  According to the FBI website, research shows that cyberbullying is very common with sexting.  Therefore, these two are commonly combined together in many legal policies and laws (Schafer).  In Arizona, the terms used in covering cyberbully lawsuits would be harassment, intimidation and bullying.  As most schools in Arizona takes harassment issues very seriously, just like other states in US; Arizona has a low rate in this crime.  According to Patchin, almost 90% of the school officers had dealt with cyberbullying cases but about 25% of the school officers and over 40% of the law enforcement officers did not know if their state had a specific law to cyberbullying (Patchin).  From the law enforcement perspective form this point of view, many are unsure about the law and legal policies towards this crime, which is depressing to see. Officers should be more updated on their knowledge of the legal laws and policies for a case that is almost happening everyday like cyberbullying (Schafer).

            Law enforcement plays the biggest role here in reducing the crime rate of cyberbullying.  Since most cases have to do with younger children and teenagers, school policies are tightened up in many countries to avoid their student in becoming a victim.  School officers have to determine the seriousness of cyberbullying.  On the FBI website, one of the officers stated: “The scenarios ranged from relatively minor (e.g. “A teacher confiscates a cell phone from a student in class and wants to determine if it contains any information that is in violation of school policy.”) to much more serious (e.g. “A male student receives an email from an unknown person threatening to kill him at school tomorrow.”) (Schafer).”  Because of these huge gaps between the seriousness of cyberbullying, it is hard to set one law towards this crime.  Crime normally starts from minor cases and slowly, the cyberbully will take risk and create a more serious situation.  According to legal laws, it is not right to punish criminals who violate very minor crimes and there may not be any charges applied to it (Patchin).  With this said, it actually creates bigger pressure and responsibilities for school officers and police officers to be more alert and taking this case seriously. 

            Relating to officers role, the federal laws should state appropriate law enforcement towards cyberbullying and be more specific about their circumstances.  Cyberbullying and sexting is definitely a new social problem and various officers have to act fast to prevent a boost in this type of crime rates.  Even if there is no enforcement act, this issue should not be ignored, as it will be come worst as time goes.  Disciplinary act is a good way to start reducing this crime rate and laws should be strongly enforced in schools compared to many other institutions.  Cyberbullying should be taken more seriously because death happens in this technological bullying method.  Unlike any other computer crimes, cyberbullying is the hardest of all to trace.

            Cyberbullying is a matter that will most likely float around the social media like a lost spirit and is hard to be resolved.  It is almost hard to know who is the criminal behind the bullying causing suicidal cases in the society and fear upon using the social media.  Even though it could not be resolved, there are many ways to spread the words through campaigns, proper education and better parental guidance, which, in the future, lower this crime rate.  Internet users should also be more responsible while using social medias not to trust strangers online and definitely not sharing any nude pictures with someone you barely know.  This will not only ruin ones reputation but will cause an individual to be unaccepted by public if blackmailed.  To rap things up, please use the Internet wisely and make good use of it.  Do not be that one bad apple which spoils the whole basket.

Works Cited

"Background on White House Conference on Bullying Prevention." The White House. N.p., 10 Mar. 2011. Web. 3 Oct. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov>.

Bazelon, Emily. "The Online Avengers." The New York Times. The New York Times, 18 Jan. 2014. Web. 29 Sept. 2014. <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/19/magazine/the-online-avengers.html?>.

"Bullying, Cyberbullying & Suicide Statistics." Megan Meier Foundation. N.p., 2014. Web. 05 Oct. 2014. <http://www.meganmeierfoundation.org/statistics.html>.

"Charges over Todd Cyber-bullying." BBC News. N.p., 18 Apr. 2014. Web. 17 Oct. 2014. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27076991>.

Chua, Melissa. "China, Singapore, Top Charts for Cyberbullying among Youths." Networks Asia. N.p., 25 June 2012. Web. 12 Oct. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.networksasia.net%2Farticle%2Fchina-singapore-top-charts-cyberbullying-among-youths-1340639968>.

"Cyber Bullying | Violence Prevention Works." Cyber Bullying | Violence Prevention Works. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Oct. 2014. <http://www.violencepreventionworks.org/public/cyber_bullying.page>.

"Cyberbullying and Bullying Statistics 2014, Finally!" No BullyingExpert Advice On Cyber Bullying School Bullying. N.p., 2014. Web. 12 Oct. 2014. <http://nobullying.com/cyberbullying-bullying-statistics-2014-finally/>.

"Cyber Bullying Statistics." Bullying Statistics. 2010. Web. 29 Sept. 2014. <http://www.bullyingstatistics.org/content/cyber-bullying-statistics.html>.

Grenoble, Ryan. "Amanda Todd: Bullied Canadian Teen Commits Suicide After Prolonged Battle Online And In School." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 11 Oct. 2012. Web. 24 Oct. 2014. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/11/amanda-todd-suicide-bullying_n_1959909.html>.

Harper, Douglas. "Online Etymology Dictionary." Online Etymology Dictionary. N.p., 2013. Web. 09 Oct. 2014. <http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bully>.

Hinduja, Sameer. "Cyberbullying Rates Across the World, and the Role of Culture - Cyberbullying Research Center." Cyberbullying Research Center Cyberbullying Rates Across the World and the Role of Culture Comments. N.p., 17 Feb. 2011. Web. 12 Oct. 2014. <http://cyberbullying.us/cyberbullying-rates-across-the-world-and-the-role-of-culture/>.

Nakao, Yuriko. "Cyberbullying a Problem around the Globe: Poll." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 11 Jan. 2012. Web. 12 Oct. 2014. <http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/11/us-cyberbullying-poll-idUSTRE80A1FX20120111>.

Patchin, Justin W. "Law Enforcement Views of Cyberbullying and Sexting - Cyberbullying Research Center." Cyberbullying Research Center Law Enforcement Views of Cyberbullying and Sexting Comments. N.p., 13 Aug. 2013. Web. 05 Oct. 2014. <http://cyberbullying.us/law-enforcement-views-of-cyberbullying-and-sexting/>.

Pittaro, Michael L. "Cyber Stalking: An Analysis of Online Harassment and Intimidation." International Journal of Cyber Criminology 1.2 (2007). Cybercrime Journal. 2007. Web. 29 Sept. 2014. <http://www.cybercrimejournal.com/pittaroijccvol1is2.htm>.

Schafer, Joseph A., PhD, Justin W. Patchin, PhD, and Hinduja Sameer, PhD. "Cyberbullying and Sexting: Law Enforcement Perceptions." FBI. FBI, 22 Jan. 2013. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. <http://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/law-enforcement-bulletin/2013/june/cyberbullying-and-sexting>.

"School District No. 44 (North Vancouver) v. Jubran, 2005 BCCA 201 (CanLII)." CanLII. N.p., Apr. 2005. Web. 09 Oct. 2014. <http://www.canlii.org/en/bc/bcca/doc/2005/2005bcca201/2005bcca201.html>.

Townsend, Mark. "NSPCC Study Finds That Cyberbullies Target 'one in Five Children'" The Guardian. N.p., 10 Aug. 2013. Web. 10 Oct. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsociety%2F2013%2Faug%2F10%2Fcyberbullies-target-children-nspcc-internet-abuse-askfm>.

Xu, Jun-Ming, Kwang-Sung Jun, Xiaojin Zhu, and Amy Bellmore. "Learning from Bullying Traces in Social Media." Learning from Bullying Traces in Social Media (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 3 Oct. 2014. <http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~jerryzhu/pub/naaclhlt2012.pdf>.